The wave direction was determined in the 8-rhumb system (directional resolution 45°) as the approach direction of the largest wave components. In order to remove the bias caused by a systematically larger number of observations per day during relatively

calm spring and summer seasons on the Estonian coasts, the analysis in the cited sources is based on the set of daily mean wave heights. Spatial patterns of wave properties and their changes in the course of time have been extensively studied during recent years based on numerical simulations and realistic wind patterns for the entire Baltic Sea (Cieślikiewicz & Paplińska-Swerpel 2008, Kriezi & Broman 2008, Räämet et al. 2009, 2010, Räämet & Soomere 2010a,b, Soomere et al. 2011). This research Neratinib has been complemented by studies of local wave properties and their temporal changes using simplified one-point wave models and locally measured winds (Suursaar & Kullas 2009a,b, Zaitseva-Pärnaste et al. 2009). A

combination of these approaches (a rapid method of calculation of the wave climate in small areas using high-resolution spectral wave models covering the entire Baltic Sea and one-point high-quality marine winds) has been developed VE821 in Soomere (2005) and Laanearu et al. (2007). Relatively simple models (in particular, the so-called SMB model, also called the significant wave method, based on the fetch-limited equations of Sverdrup, Munk and Bretschneider (Seymour 1977) and forced by one-point wind data) have been applied in a number of recent studies. Such models calculate the basic wave properties under the assumption that the wind properties are

constant over the entire fetch area. As strong winds are frequently highly homogeneous in the Baltic Proper and both the reaction and memory time of a large part of the wave fields in this basin are relatively short (Soomere 2005), such simple models are valuable tools for rapid estimates of the wave statistics Cell press and for deriving first approximations of the wave time series in this water body. The models usually need a certain tuning in order to compensate for the difference between the measured wind speeds from those on the open sea (Suursaar & Kullas 2009a,b, Suursaar 2010). They usually reproduce not only the basic wave statistics but also the time series of the wave properties at the calibration site (Zaitseva-Pärnaste et al. 2009). Such models only fail to reproduce remote swell and extreme wave conditions (which are rare in the Baltic Sea, Soomere 2008, Räämet et al. 2010) and some refraction-caused effects. The identification of spatial patterns in variations of wave properties generally requires the use of contemporary spectral wave models that are able to adequately follow the wave patterns over the entire sea. In general, the WAM model gives good results in the Baltic Sea if the model resolution is appropriate and the wind information is correct (Tuomi et al. 1999).

Rosendo et al. [201] suggest that participation in management will help to develop a sense of ownership and support, which ultimately may improve compliance. However, as Heck et al. [202] report not all stakeholders will wish to participate in management decisions at all stages of the MPA design and management process. Effective BMS-354825 solubility dmso management requires support in the form of an enabling policy and organizational environment. A secure source of finances and governmental and local capacity are also required to buttress management processes and strategies ranging from participation to enforcement. Given that the “lack

of income has been identified as a primary reason for [management] failure” [203],

the development of cost effective management structures and sustainable financing mechanisms is of great import for MPA sustainability. Initial funding for MPA establishment can sometimes be secured through loans from multi-lateral development banks, grants and donations from a variety of public, civil and private sector organizations, debt-for-nature swaps, and government sources [204]. This funding is often short term. Potential sustainable see more solutions for financing management include PES markets, user fees from tourism, environmental trust funds, and private sector solutions such as hotel-managed marine reserves [15], [73], [90], [174] and [205]. Finally, individual leadership is an important ingredient in the success of MPA management [206].

In theory, MPAs can have a broad array of ecological and socio-economic NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase benefits. In practice, the creation of no-take MPAs or zones in multiple use MPAs has been shown to result in beneficial ecological outcomes. Yet, the percentage of the planet׳s ocean (recent estimates range from ~1% to 3.2% [207], [208] and [209]) and Exclusive Economic Zones (~2.86–7.4% [210] and [211]) that are protected is still quite low and an even smaller percentage of these are designated as no take areas. As noted previously even fewer of these areas may be managed effectively and thus producing the desired ecological results. Furthermore, the relationship between MPAs and local communities is often problematic which is a concern since perceptions of benefit may be a precursor of support and ultimately success. Impact studies have shown that MPAs have often led to quite divergent livelihood and socio-economic outcomes for local communities. The conceptualization of inputs offered in this paper is a continuation of discussions about what is required to achieve successful outcomes from PAs and MPAs [101], [102], [159], [212], [213], [214], [215], [216] and [217].

The project was conducted in a period (2008–2010) when blue-green algae blooms were not as pronounced as in earlier years (SMHI 2008); as a matter of fact, the ferry route crossed Selleckchem Dabrafenib the Baltic Proper in a region not so subject to intensive blooms. Nevertheless, the discrete samples analysed between 7 and 28 July 2008 showed abundant Cyanophyceae.

Their biomass varied from 660.0 mm3 m− 3 (max.) at station GK6 on 14 July to 99.33 mm3 m− 3 (min.) at station GK3 on 21 July, i.e. respective contributions to the total phytoplankton biomass of 83.0% and 41.0%. The toxic Nodularia spumigena was found in the majority of discrete samples from this period. The largest proportions of N. spumigena, 84.4% in the Cyanophyceae biomass and 66.7% in the total phytoplankton biomass, was recorded at station GK4 on 14 July. A high biomass of N. spumigena (18.0 mm3 m− 3; 61.6% of the Cyanophyceae and 35.5% of the total biomass) was recorded at station GK1 on 14 July, when the maximum concentration of nodularin was also recorded ( Figure 6). The data on the proportion PD0325901 cell line of cyanobacteria in the total summer phytoplankton biomass tally with the observations of increasing trends in the proportion of cyanobacteria

in the Baltic phytoplankton (Wasmund and Uhlig, 2003 and Olli et al., 2011). The ecological consequences of plankton blooms and their most harmful effects are linked to the occurrence of a high biomass of heterocystous species, which supply an additional

load of nitrogen to the Baltic Sea ecosystem. N. spumigena is a cyanobacterium that forms vast blooms in the Baltic Sea during the summer ( Kahru et al., 1994, Wrzołek, 1996, Wasmund, 1997 and Finni Idoxuridine et al., 2001). This phenomenon is both important and dangerous, as N. spumigena is capable of producing a potent toxin – nodularin (NOD) ( Reinhart et al. 1988). A non-ribosomal cyclic pentapeptide of unusual structure, nodularin alters the liver’s structure and function by inhibiting the activity of eukaryotic protein phosphatases (PP1 and PP2A) ( Carmichael 1992). Incidents of poisoning involving domestic animals, cattle and birds are well documented ( Edler et al., 1985 and Sivonen and Jones, 1999). The concentrations of nodularin measured in discrete samples in 2008 (Figure 6 and Figure 7) were comparable to those recorded in the Gulf of Gdańsk and the Baltic Sea in recent years; e.g. during the N. spumigena bloom in summer 2007, Kankaanpää et al. (2009) reported a NOD concentration of 2.45 μg dm− 3. The average NOD concentration in the Baltic Sea, determined by Mazur-Marzec et al. (2006), did not usually exceed 1 μg dm−3. However, in coastal waters, including bathing areas, the concentration of the toxin can temporarily exceed 20 000 μg dm− 3 ( Mazur-Marzec et al. 2006).

The JAKFISH approach to participatory modelling was mainly inspired by the concept of post-normal science [26] and [27]. A policy situation can be considered post-normal when stakes are high and scientific knowledge is uncertain ( Fig. 1) [26] and [28], which often is the case for fisheries. In such

situations, one cannot rely on textbook knowledge, and trust that scientists alone will be able to give the answers – because there is not one single answer due to the uncertainties and decision Venetoclax nmr stakes involved. The different types of uncertainties have traditionally been dealt with insufficiently by the science, and some scientists have advocated to bring them to the centre of the policy

debate [3], [5] and [7]. A central element of post-normal science is extended peer review, where the scientific “peer review community” is extended to include stakeholders [27]. An extended peer review process extends beyond simply ensuring the scientific credibility of results to ensuring the relevance of the results for the policy process. Crucial for an extended peer review is that non-experts understand the implied uncertainties in scientific knowledge so that management actions can take them into account. Practical experience with participatory modelling for natural resource management and marine governance is still limited. JAKFISH explored the potential of

participatory modelling in four case studies and Dabrafenib in vivo in varied and Carnitine palmitoyltransferase II flexible ways. Context and issues differed in each case study, thus representing different situations that can arise within the CFP. This diversity in case studies enabled us to learn about possible options and basic procedural and structural requirements of participatory processes that involve stakeholders in model-related activities. This paper reviews the participatory processes carried out in the four JAKFISH case studies and synthesizes the achievements, failures and successes. In Section 2, an overview is given of forms of participatory modelling and ways of handling uncertainty. Detailed characteristics of the four JAKFISH case studies and their individual participatory modelling approaches are presented in Section 3. Section 4 reflects upon the lessons learned. The paper concludes with suggestions for the further integration of participatory approaches into fisheries management. The following paragraphs sketch possible forms of participatory modelling and uncertainty handling with relevance for the JAKFISH case studies. Participatory modelling is an emerging instrument of stakeholder involvement into scientific modelling for the governance of natural resources. It can take place at different stages of the modelling process, spanning from the construction to the actual use of a model [29].

e. pyridoxal 5ʹ-phosphate binding lysine) ( Supplemental Fig. 4), suggesting that it is a pyridoxal 5ʹ-phosphate-dependent enzyme. The availability of molecular tests for egg quality as predictors of developmental

success would benefit Atlantic cod aquaculture. Therefore, we aimed to use functional genomics tools and techniques to study the cod egg transcriptome and identify candidate molecular biomarkers of egg quality. While some maternal transcripts included in our qPCR studies were associated with extremes in egg quality (e.g. MAPK inhibitor acy3 expression was lowest in the highest quality fertilized and unfertilized eggs), there was little correlation between egg quality and transcript expression when all females were considered. Further, although one gene (cth) was negatively correlated

with egg quality, it had an extremely narrow range of expression among egg batches. Thus, these data suggest that none of the genes studied by qPCR are suitable single biomarkers of cod egg quality. Still, we provide new information on the cod maternal transcriptome, and report that several of the names of genes that were previously reported to be highly expressed in Atlantic cod eggs [e.g. ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase subunit M2, cyclin A1, claudin-like protein ZF-A89, ubiquitin, and calmodulin in Lanes et al. (2013); cytochrome c oxidase subunit I in Kleppe et al. (2012)] were found in our “highly expressed in eggs regardless of egg check details quality” gene list ( Supplemental Table 8). These functional genomics studies provide valuable resources for future research on

the genes and pathways involved in egg and early embryonic development of Atlantic cod. While the majority of the genes selected for qPCR with fertilized egg templates had microarray and qPCR Amylase data that agreed in direction of change, 4 of the 12 genes (33%; usp14, cth, trappc3, and cnih) had microarray and qPCR fold-change values in opposite directions ( Table 1 and Table 2). This is similar to the results of Morais et al. (2012), who found that 4 out of 11 genes (36%) identified in a 16 K cod microarray experiment had microarray and qPCR fold-changes in opposite directions. As noted by Booman et al. (2011) and Liu et al. (2013), possible explanations for why microarray and qPCR results may differ include: 1) microarray probes and qPCR amplicons mapping to different regions of the transcript; and 2) the influence of paralogues (gene duplicates) or other related transcripts on microarray hybridization results, but not gene-specific qPCR assays. The remainder of the discussion is focused on the 5 microarray-identified genes that were qPCR confirmed as > 2-fold differentially expressed in fertilized eggs from the highest quality female versus both of the lowest quality females (dcbld1, ddc, acy3, kpna7, and hacd1) and the 3 IFN pathway genes (irf7, ifngr1, and ifrd1) that were also shown to be maternally expressed in cod.

In the extreme, hypersaline conditions of the high salinity ponds and the crystallizers, the environment is too harsh and biodiversity is consequently limited; while many taxonomic groups are absent, halophilic and halotolerant taxa persist and thrive (Rodriguez-Valera 1988). In the fourth pond, the phytoplankton consisted solely of the green alga Dunaliella salina along with four species of cyanobacteria, dominated by S. salina. In the crystallizer pond (P5), the phytoplankton community was nearly a monoculture of D. salina; cyanobacteria

were absent. Worldwide, the phytoplankton community of highly saline, concentrating ponds and Nutlin-3a supplier crystallizer ponds in saltworks and naturally hypersaline environments consist mainly of Dunaliella spp. owing to their high salinity tolerance ( Davis and Giordano, 1996, Dolapsakis et al., 2005, Mohebbi et al., 2009 and Mohebbi et al., 2011). It is worth

mentioning that the role of Dunaliella is to release organic molecules such as enzymes, nitrogen compounds into the water, which favour the growth of halophilic bacteria and in turn accelerate evaporation ( Mohebbi et al. 2011). To conclude, salinity was a major controlling factor greatly influencing the richness, species diversity and abundance of phytoplankton Buparlisib purchase in different ponds of the solar saltern at Port Fouad. In spite of local variations in climate and nutrient availability, the phytoplankton composition, density and spatial variations along the salinity gradient in the study area were, in many respects, nearly similar to what has been observed in other solar saltworks. The pond with the lowest salinity (P1) (< 52 g l− 1) was characterized

by a significant Demeclocycline diversity, and algal blooms (mainly diatoms and dinoflagellates) were due to coastal eutrophication. The intermediate salinity ponds (P2 and P3) with salinity ∼ 112–180 g l− 1 exhibited a decline in both species richness and density, but the stenohaline, non-mucilaginous blue-green algae (S. salina) flourished there. The highly saline concentrating ponds and crystallizers (P4 and P5) with salinity ∼ 223–340 g l− 1 support few species, although the halotolerant green algae D. salina does thrive; the blue-green algae disappear at saturation with sodium chloride. The authors gratefully acknowledge support from the staff of the El-Nasr Saltern Company, Port Foaud, Egypt. Special thanks go to Mr Osama Abd El-Aziz, the executive manager, for allowing access to the saltern. We extend our appreciation to the biologist, Mr Mohamed Attia for his assistance in collecting samples. “
“The Ponto-Caspian zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha (Pallas 1771), is one of the most successful and best-studied suspension-feeding invaders, capable of colonizing both fresh and brackish water bodies. Its life history and biological traits (e.g.

At day 91, over-represented functions could not be identified due to the limited number of differentially expressed genes at ≤ 14 mg/L SDD. At higher concentrations, functions associated with immune response, lipid metabolism, small molecule biochemistry, metabolism and cell death were similarly over-represented in duodenum (Table 3) and jejunum (Supplementary Table S4). Table 4 lists selected genes with respective fold inductions and corresponding EC50 values, grouped according to the most over-represented

functional categories presented in Table 2 and Table 3. For example, genes associated with immune CT99021 cost response (e.g., Anxa2, Blnk, Ccl24, Il1rl1, Il33 and Clec7a) were differentially expressed at days 8 and 91. Genes associated with expression at both time points preceded

and coincided with minimal histiocytic infiltration after 90 days of SDD exposure. Several antigen processing and presentation genes, including Ciita, Tap2, B2m, and Cd74 were significantly suppressed (− 1.6- to − 7.9-fold) following Cr(VI) exposure. At day 91, Il1b was significantly decreased 1.5-fold at ≥ 60 mg/L SDD, and Tnf was moderately repressed (1.4-fold) at ≥ 60 mg/L SDD. These findings are consistent with decreases in pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-1β in the duodenum at ≥ 60 mg/L SDD ( Thompson et al., 2011b). SDD induced (~ 1.5- to 6.7-fold) several redox-sensitive Nrf2 transcription factor targets, including Atf4, Gpx1, Gpx2, Gsr, Mt1, Prdx1, and Stip1 ( Table 4). These genes are involved in antioxidant,

detoxification, and cytoprotective functions. Induction GDC-0449 of genes associated with the Nrf2 pathway (IPA canonical pathway is shown in Supplementary Fig. S5) suggests activation of defense mechanisms in response to oxidative stress, consistent with the reduced GSH/GSSG ratio and elevated protein carbonyls (oxidation) in duodenum ( Thompson et al., 2011b). Carbonyl reductase (Cbr3), also regulated by Nrf2 ( Ebert et al., 2010), was elevated at the four lowest concentrations at day see more 91 ( Supplementary Table S2). Out of 57 unique mouse Nrf2 target genes (from IPA Nrf2-mediated oxidative stress response canonical pathway), SDD elicited the dose-dependent differential expression (induced and repressed) of 42–68% of all Nrf2 targets in the duodenum or jejunum at 8 and 91 days (ǀfold changeǀ > 1.5, P1(t) > 0.999). When the filtering criteria were relaxed (ǀfold changeǀ > 1.2, P1(t) > 0.90), the number of differentially expressed Nrf2 pathway associated increased to 73–87% ( Supplementary Table S5). In addition to genes in the Nrf2 pathway, SDD also induced (up to 6-fold) members of the glutathione transferase and peroxidase families, including Gsto2, Gstt2, Gstm2, Gstm5, Gsta3, Gsta4, Gstp1, and Gpx2 ( Supplementary Table S5), further suggesting an oxidative stress response. Nrf2 activation can also be linked to increases in duodenal GSH levels (Thompson et al., 2011b).

In contrast, plaque brachytherapy places the source on the sclera beneath (adjacent to) the tumor. Thus, in the treatment of posterior choroidal melanomas, radiation must travel through the sclera before entering the tumor and through the eye before exiting through normal anterior ocular tissues (26). Primarily because of dose gradient and side-scatter effects, plaque brachytherapy delivers

comparatively more radiation to subjacent sclera and adjacent ocular structures (13). The ABS-OOTF recognizes (Level 1 Consensus) that in the treatment of posterior uveal melanomas, there is less resultant radiobiologic effect on normal anterior ocular structures using low-energy (103Pd, 125I) plaque brachytherapy compared with proton beam. This relative dose sparing may explain why clinical studies have GDC-0980 ic50 revealed more anterior segment complications and secondary enucleations selleck after charged particle therapy [107], [108], [110], [111], [112], [113] and [114]. External beam radiation techniques (proton, helium ion, gamma knife, and stereotactic radiosurgery) are also complicated

by mobile target volume (eye movement). Since eye plaques are sewn to the eye wall beneath their target volume, when the eye moves so does the plaque. In contrast, when a target volume is externally created to extend within the eye (all EBRT techniques), mobility of the eye makes intraocular dose deposition less predictable. This is why during proton therapy, eye movements must be constantly monitored and the patient reminded (as needed) to fixate on a reference target. This is because eye movements cause misapplication of protons within the eye. In addition, should larger tumor-free safety margins become necessary, more normal tissues (anterior and posterior) fall within the cylindrical target volume. In addition, proton beam facilities are vastly more expensive (Table 4) [115] and [116]. The ABS-OOTF survey indicates that proton beam has been used as an alternative to enucleation for tumors considered unsuitable for brachytherapy. This Oxymatrine includes tumors

that touch or surround the optic disc, for very large tumors and where 125I and 103Pd plaques are not available. In addition, a novel strategy tries to prevent secondary inflammation; “vitritis” or “toxic tumor syndrome” has been described after brachytherapy for large choroidal melanoma. Here, large uveal melanomas are first treated with proton beam and then removed by internal resection (102). There are only a few centers using this technique (ABS-OOTF Level 3 Consensus). Reporting the results of treatment is particularly challenging. Consider that when multiple centers use the same radionuclides source, they often differ in plaque construction, dosimetry, doses, and dose rate. Furthermore, until acceptance of the AJCC staging system, there existed no universal method to report the size of uveal melanomas.

Considering this, it is relevant to study which hypothalamic

magnocellular nucleus mediates the cardiovascular Inhibitor Library in vitro response evoked by carbachol microinjection into the BST. Taking that into consideration, we evaluated the hypothesis that PVN and/or SON neurons are part of the neural pathway related to cardiovascular responses following carbachol microinjection into the BST of unanesthetized rats. For this, we investigated cardiovascular responses evoked by carbachol microinjection into the BST before and after PVN or SON pretreatment, either ipsilateral or contralateral in relation to BST microinjection site, with the nonselective neurotransmission blocker cobalt chloride (CoCl2). Microinjection of aCSF into the BST (n = 5) did not affect either MAP (99 ± 2 vs. 98 ± 3 mm Hg, t = 0.2, P > 0.05) or HR (379 ± 11 vs. 352 ± 9 bpm, t = 1.3, P > 0.05) baseline values. However, microinjection of carbachol into the BST caused significant pressor and bradycardiac responses in unanesthetized rats ( Fig. 1). Photomicrography of a coronal brain section showing a representative microinjection site into the BST is presented in Fig. 2. Diagrammatic representation of the BST indicating microinjection sites into the BST of all animals used in the present

study is also shown in Fig. 2. Microinjection of carbachol (n = 6) buy CT99021 into the BST significantly increased plasma vasopressin content (aCSF: 2.3 ± 0.5 pg/mL vs. carbachol: 21.3 ± 3.6 pg/mL, t = 5, P < 0.005), when compared to the control group that received vehicle (aCSF) injection into the BST (n = 6). Microinjection of aCSF into the ipsilateral SON (n = 7) did not affect either MAP (98 ± 2 vs. 101 ± 3 mm Hg, t = 0.5, P > 0.05) or HR

(352 ± 7 vs. 367 ± 11 bpm, t = 1.5, P > 0.05) baseline values. Pretreatment of the ipsilateral SON with aCSF also did not affect the pressor (43 ± 2 vs. 38 ± 2 mm Hg, t = 2.3, P > 0.05) and bradycardiac (− 67 ± 7 vs. − 64 ± 8 bpm, t = 0.2, P > 0.05) response to carbachol microinjection into the BST ( Fig. 1A). Microinjection of CoCl2 into the ipsilateral SON (n = 7) did not affect either MAP (102 ± 2 vs. 100 ± 2 mm Hg, t = 0.6, P > 0.05) or HR (351 ± 6 vs. 356 ± 8 bpm, t = 0.7, P > 0.05) baseline values. However, ipsilateral SON pretreatment with CoCl2 significantly reduced the pressor (44 ± 2 vs. 6 ± 1 mm Hg, t = 16, P < 0.0001) and bradycardiac (− 74 ± 6 vs. − 12 ± 1 bpm, FAD t = 10, P < 0.0001) response to carbachol microinjection into the BST ( Fig. 1A). Time-course analysis indicated a significant effect of SON pretreatment with CoCl2 in carbachol cardiovascular effects (ΔMAP: F(1,456) = 468, P < 0.0001 and ΔHR: F(1,456) = 111, P < 0.0001), a significant effect over time (ΔMAP: F(37,456) = 23, P < 0.0001 and ΔHR: F(37,456) = 11, P < 0.0001), and an interaction between treatment and time (ΔMAP: F(37,456) = 20, P < 0.0001 and ΔHR: F(37,456) = 4, P < 0.0001) ( Fig. 1B). Microinjection of aCSF into the contralateral SON (n = 6) did not affect either MAP (100 ± 3 vs.

Two of the cis-isomers, namely the AZD6738 purchase 1R,cis- and 1S,cis-stereoisomers make up α-cypermethrin, the most active pair of the cypermethrin isomers [4] and [7]. The urinary concentrations of 3-phenoxybenzoic acid, a cypermethrin metabolite, were positively correlated with the frequency of spraying in Japanese pest control operators [20]. Because of its widespread use, not only persons working with insecticides, but large parts of the population are regularly exposed to

cypermethrin. Cypermethrin metabolites were found in 60% of the collected urine samples in a German population [15] and in >70% of urine samples in a population in the USA [1]. Ingestion of cypermethrin with the diet was identified as the most likely route of exposure in Germany [33]. In rats, oral gavage of single or repeated doses of cypermethrin induces oxidative stress and subsequent oxidative damage in erythrocytes, brain, and liver [9], [13], [17] and [32] and is accompanied by reductions in the activities of the antioxidant enzymes catalase [9] and [32] and superoxide dismutase [9]. In these studies, simultaneous treatment with antioxidants, such as vitamin E, phytochemicals

from propolis, or curcumin, reduced cypermethrin-induced oxidative stress and increased the activities of antioxidant enzymes [9], [13], [17] and [32]. Curcumin is a yellow pigment and lipophilic phenolic compound derived from the rhizome of the plant turmeric (Curcuma longa of the ginger family (Zingiberaceae)) and is used for food colouring and flavouring in private www.selleckchem.com/products/SB-431542.html homes and by the food industry. Among the reported health beneficial effects of dietary curcumin Adenosine triphosphate are its potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities [2]. Previous animal studies have applied single or repeated doses of cypermethrin, equivalent to 10% LD50 or higher, dissolved in oil via gastric intubation [9], [12] and [32], which would represent the rather unrealistic scenario of a high-dose oral exposure once a day in humans. The present experiment was therefore designed

to mimic a constant low-level dietary exposure spread out over the day, which is a more realistic simulation of the exposure pattern observed in humans [33]. The aim of this experiment was to test whether or not this continuous dietary exposure to small doses of α-cypermethrin would induce oxidative stress in rats and, if so, whether or not simultaneous ingestion of curcumin would reduce pesticide-induced oxidative damage. As previous studies focused on acute effects shortly after high-dose exposure, we furthermore aimed to investigate the potential accumulation of pyrethroid-induced oxidative damage over a longer period of seven weeks. α-Cypermethrin (CAS # 52315-07-8; purity ≥97%) was a kind gift from Nanjing Essence Fine-Chemical Co., Ltd. (Nanjing, China). Curcumin (LKT-C8069; CAS # 458-37-7; purity >90%) was from LKT Laboratories Inc. (St. Paul, MN, USA).