Control wells contained (1) bacteria, peptone and antibiotic [streptomycin

(100 μg/mL) and ampicillin (80 μg/mL)]; (2) bacteria and peptone; and/or (3) peptone alone. Bacteria were grown in 20 mL tryptone soy buffer (TSB) with shaking for 17 h at 30 °C and then 100 μL of the E. coli k12 solution was transferred to 10 mL of TSB and incubated for a further 4 h. The bacteria were then selleck screening library washed in PBS and diluted in TSB to a final concentration of 1 × 105 cells/mL. Fifty microliters of midgut sample were then incubated with 10 μL of bacterial suspension in triplicate in the wells of a sterile flat-bottom, 96-well microtiter plate (Nunc, Fisher Scientific UK, Leicestershire, UK). The optical densities were measured at 550 nm (OD550) at 37 °C and read at hour intervals from time zero for 12 h. All data points were subsequently blanked against time zero to account

for the opacity of the midgut samples and then the E. coli k12 readings were subtracted from all sample readings and multiplied by 100. Samples for the nitrite and nitrate determinations were collected in the same manner as for the antibacterial assays. The anterior midgut samples dissected nine days after feeding were homogenized in a tube with 200 μL of Milli-Q water and centrifuged at 8000 g for 1 min at 4 °C. Aliquots of 10 μL from supernatant this website were diluted in 90 μL of Milli-Q water. Nitrate and nitrite contents of samples were determined following the manufacturer’s instructions using the Griess Reagent System Assay Kit (Promega, WI, Methocarbamol USA), and absorbance of the product was measured at 550 nm (Moncada, 1992). Nitrite and nitrate contents were quantified as μmoles using a range of sodium nitrate standards and the specific activity was calculated as mg/mL of protein concentration in the anterior midgut samples. Protein content of samples was quantified with a protein assay kit (BCA∗ Protein Assay Reagent,

Pierce, USA) using bovine serum albumin (BSA) standards. The results were analyzed with GraphPad Prism 5 using 1 Way ANOVA or unpaired T test, or Mann Whitney test (nonparametric test) depending on the data distribution and number of treatments. Data were reported as mean ± standard error (SE) or as individual values with medians for parasite and microbiota populations. Differences among groups were considered not statistically significant when p > 0.05. Probability levels are specified in the text and figure legends. The physalin B treatment by oral, topical and contact application did not alter the physiology of the insects even when the insects were challenged by T. cruzi Dm28c clone. The mortality of all treated insects (around 9.6%) was similar to control (8.2%) during the 30 days and no alterations in the ecdysis process were observed. Experiments to investigate the direct effects of physalin B on T.

e., a garden path is encountered) and the associated probability must be reallocated to other (previously unlikely) interpretations. If the P600 indeed reflects syntactic reanalysis, find more we could therefore have seen surprisal effects on the P600. Even an entropy-reduction effect could not have been excluded in advance, considering that Hale (2003) and Linzen and Jaeger (2014) demonstrate that some garden paths can be viewed as effects of entropy reduction rather then surprisal. However, the P600 has also been found in cases that do not involve

increased syntactic processing difficulty (e.g., Hoeks et al., 2004, Kuperberg et al., 2007, Regel et al., 2011 and Van Berkum et al., 2007). This led to alternative

interpretations of the EPZ015666 P600 effect (e.g., Brouwer et al., 2012 and Kuperberg, 2007) in which syntactic processing plays no central role and there is no reason to expect any effect of information quantities (at least, not as captured by our language models). Cloze probabilities depend not only on participants’ knowledge of language but also on non-linguistic factors, such as world knowledge and metacognitive strategies. Our model-derived probabilities are very different in this respect, because they are solely based on the statistical language patterns extracted from the training corpus. Consequently, the use of computational models (as opposed to cloze probabilities) allows us to isolate purely linguistic effects on the EEG signal. More importantly, evaluating and comparing the predictions by structurally different models against the same set of experimental data provides insight into the cognitively most plausible sentence comprehension processes. Model comparisons revealed significant differences between model types with respect to the N400 effect. In particular, the n-gram and RNN model accounted for variance in N400 size over and above the PSG whereas the reverse was not the case. In short, the more parsimonious models, which

do not CYTH4 rely on assumptions specific to language, outperform the hierarchical grammar based system. This mirrors results from reading time studies ( Frank and Bod, 2011 and Frank and Thompson, 2012; but see Fossum & Levy, 2012), suggesting that the assumptions underlying the PSG model are not efficacious for generating expectations about the upcoming word. Such a conclusion is consistent with claims that a non-hierarchical, RNN-like architecture forms a more plausible cognitive model of language processing than systems that are based on hierarchical syntactic structure (e.g., Bybee and McClelland, 2005, Christiansen and MacDonald, 2009 and Frank et al., 2012). Likewise, it is noticeable that there was no effect on ERP components that are traditionally considered to reflect syntactic processing effort.

In order to get a clearer view on the precise function of the processes underlying familiar and unfamiliar sequences Autophagy inhibitor library it seems better to separate motor preparation from motor execution. Therefore a modified version of the DSP-task was developed, inspired by the precuing paradigm of Rosenbaum (1980). In Rosenbaum’s paradigm precues (S1) provide specific information about the forthcoming movement. After a delay period an execution/withhold (go/nogo) signal (S2) is presented, which may provide missing information about the forthcoming movement in case of partial or non-informative precues or simply a go/nogo signal. Similar to the S1–S2 paradigm of Rosenbaum,

a go/nogo version of the DSP task was designed in which six key-specific stimuli were presented in sequence, which after a preparatory interval were followed by a go/nogo signal. In case of a go signal, participants were to react as fast and accurately as possible by pressing the six corresponding keys in the indicated order, and in case of a nogo signal responses should be withheld. This modified DSP task allows us to study the preparation phase of sequence learning in isolation from motor execution. To study movement preparation measures derived from the EEG appear especially useful (Dirnberger et al., 2000, Van der Lubbe et al., 2000 and Verleger et al., 2000). Event related potentials (ERPs) are indeed suitable to track the time course of functional processes underlying

movement preparation. In the present study, we employed the contingent negative variation (CNV), the lateralized readiness potential (LRP), and the contralateral delay activity (CDA) to study preparation MAPK inhibitor of motoric sequences, since they give information about several http://www.selleck.co.jp/products/Pomalidomide(CC-4047).html different aspects of preparation. The CNV is a negative going wave with mostly a central maximum that unfolds in the interval between a warning stimulus and an execution signal (e.g. a go/nogo signal) (Jentzsch and Leuthold, 2002 and Verleger et al., 2000). The late CNV is typically maximal at the

Cz electrode and is thought to reflect preparatory motor activity (cf. Brunia, 2004 and Schröter and Leuthold, 2009). What exactly is represented in the CNV is unclear. Cui et al. (2000) suggest that the complexity of the prepared response is reflected in the CNV. In their study a simple and complex motor task were compared. During the simple movement task thumbs were opposing the index fingers three times in a row, by both hands. The complex movement task was the same, except that the second thumb oppositions involved the little fingers instead of the index. An increased late CNV for complex movements as compared with simple movements was obtained, which suggests that more preprogramming is taking place before complex movements compared with simple movements. In contrast with Cui et al., 2000 and Schröter and Leuthold, 2009 suggest that the amount of prepared responses is reflected in the CNV.

However, none of the four patients had any premonitory soft tissue masses or swelling. One of these four cases was a patient who is

a phenotypic and genotypic variant of FOP (patient 7). The other three had classic FOP. In 31% of patients (22/72 cases), the initial onset of FOP occurred following trauma. In 18 of the 22 cases, the onset occurred following blunt trauma during routine childhood play; in 4 of the 22 cases, the onset occurred JQ1 nmr after surgical biopsy of an unsuspected FOP lesion. Most of the parents could not recall the definitive time interval between the blunt trauma and the resulting flare-up. Only in six patients was the interval clearly remembered by their parents to be one week (three cases), ten days (one case), two weeks (one case), and three weeks (one case). The trauma experienced by these 22 patients included blunt trauma

to the occipital region, back of neck, shoulder or elbow, and surgical procedures for torticollis, congenital hip dysplasia, osteochondroma of the proximal medial tibia, and fracture of the femoral shaft. In all the 22 patients, spontaneous flare-up would occur subsequent to the trauma-induced onset. The spatial progression of FOP lesions was similar to that previously reported [3]. There was no predictable interval between flare-ups for those affected with spontaneous RO4929097 onset or for those who had spontaneous flare-ups following an initial post-traumatic flare-up. Eighty-four percent of patients (61/72 cases) were misdiagnosed or had not been given any diagnosis in local hospitals prior to their visit to our clinic or our visit to their home. Thirty-six percent of patients (26/72 cases) had undergone a diagnostic biopsy of an FOP lesion prior to the definitive diagnosis of FOP. One hundred percent of those patients (26/26) developed heterotopic ossification at the operative site as a result of the biopsy. The pathological findings were dramatically

different from patient to patient and reflected both Etomidate the stage of the lesion at the time of the biopsy and the ignorance of the medical team regarding the true cause of the pathology. Pathologic misdiagnoses occurred in 92% of patients (24/26 cases) and included panniculitis, eosinophilic fasciitis, fibromyoma, nodular fasciitis, benign fibroma, aggressive fibroma, rhabdomyosarcoma, chondroma, osseous fasciitis, and osteochondroma. 8% of patients (2/26 cases) were correctly diagnosed with FOP on the basis of the pathologic findings and the associated toe malformations. Unfortunately, FOP could have been diagnosed in all cases on the basis of malformed toes and soft tissue swelling and/or heterotopic ossification before an unnecessary and invasive biopsy had been performed [4].

2002), were present in the Vistula as well as in the Gulf of Gdańsk. Betaproteobacteria were present at station E54, affiliating with the freshwater Alcaligenaceae MWH-UniP1, the coastal clade OM43

and the clade Comamonadaceae BAL58, which was isolated from the Baltic Proper ( Simu & Hagström 2004). The bacterial JNK inhibitor community structure in the Baltic Sea is characterised by a large seasonal diversity change ( Andersson et al. 2010). The lack of the freshwater betaproteobacterium Limnohabitans in August may be explained by its seasonal appearance just after the spring phytoplankton bloom in the Gulf of Gdańsk ( Piwosz et al. 2013). T-RFLP and the clone library, which are methods based on polymerase chain reactions, cannot be treated quantitatively. In contrast, CARD-FISH enables the counting of single cells and the comparison of relative abundances of the investigated bacterial groups. However, as there is no Smad inhibitor perfect oligonucleotide probe that targets only the group of interest,

the use of probes that target broader bacterial groups at the phyla level carries the danger of over- or underestimation (Amann & Fuchs 2008). Relative bacterial numbers based on the CARD-FISH probes used in this study showed only a general picture of the community composition in the Vistula river plume. The occurrence of the diatom Coscinodiscus sp. influenced the bacterial communities in the Gulf of Gdańsk. The mix of freshwater and typical marine bacteria exhibited a high diversity in this region. Rutecarpine The change in environmental conditions from the river to the open sea may have caused the death of some freshwater bacteria, but some

of them probably adapted to marine conditions and became an integral part of the southern Baltic Sea bacterioplankton. We thank Friedrich Widdel of the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology for allowing the first author to make use of the institute’s facilities, Bernhard M. Fuchs and Jörg Wulf for instruction and help in the use of the institute’s flow cytometer, Kasia Piwosz of the National Marine Fisheries Research Institute for her phylogenetic assessment of sequenced clones, Dariusz P. Fey for collecting the water samples from Kiezmark, and the captain and crew of the r/v ‘Baltica’ for their assistance with the sampling. We also thank Bernhard M. Fuchs, Kasia Piwosz and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on this manuscript and Susanne Hartfiel for editing it. Supplementary information “
“Sand and gravel resources in the Polish Exclusive Economic Zone of the Baltic Sea are already subject to mining procedures. Artificial beach nourishment with sand from the sea bottom is the basic method of coastal defence proposed by the strategy of coastal protection (Cieślak 2001), which has been implemented by the Polish Parliament in the Act ‘Programme of coastal protection’ (Official Gazette No. 67 pos. 621, 18 April 2003).

This surgical approach is similar, but more risky, than well-established mechanical thrombus retrieval procedure commonly applied in peripheral arteries embolism [12]. We describe two cases of uncommon carotid bifurcation saddle thrombosis of cardiac origin and a case of local thrombosis on a complicated carotid plaque. All these features could be detected easily with ultrasound, leading to the following implicated therapeutical decisions. DR, male, 84 years old, hypertensive, affected by chronic atrial fibrillation, presented acute left hemiplegia. Cerebral CT scan showed an extensive ischemic damage in the right middle cerebral

artery (MCA) territory, with CT hyperdense MCA sign, indicative of intracranial vessel M1 occlusion (Fig. 1A). Carotid duplex (Siemens S2000; 9, 14, 18 MHz linear RO4929097 solubility dmso probes) showed a saddle thrombus at the right carotid bifurcation: the head of the clot was floating in the internal carotid artery and only partially reducing the lumen, and the tail was mobile in the external carotid artery (Fig. 1 C and D, Clip 1). Flow in the distal internal carotid

artery was preserved, with only slight increased resistive indices (Fig. 1D, Clip 2). Even though the mobile clot seemed to be very harmful for the possibility of further distal embolism, considering the MCA occlusion and the extensive ischemic cerebral damage, surgery was however considered not indicated and the patient underwent

only medical treatment. FR, male, 47 years old, asymptomatic for relevant cardiovascular JAK cancer history, presented acute mental confusion and bilateral strength deficit at the lower limbs. Cerebral MRI scan showed an ischemic damage in both the anterior cerebral arteries (ACA) territory. Both ACA were scarcely visible at magnetic resonance angiography while MCAs were patent and the related brain parenchyma spared from ischemic damage (Fig. 2A). Carotid duplex (Siemens S2000; 9, 14, 18 MHz linear probes) showed a clot in the left carotid bulb, adherent to the anterior vessel wall (Fig. 2 B–D, Clip 3). Considering the patency of both the MCAs and that the cerebral tissue was still normal in the left MCA territory, the patient was successfully operated in emergency, Ergoloid to prevent further embolism. A second MRA revealed that both ACAs were originating from the left side, thus explaining why embolism affected the ACA bilaterally from the left bifurcation. Further cardiovascular screening revealed multiple thromboses, at the pulmonary artery and at the saphenofemoral right junction and the patient was also positioned a caval filter. Blood coagulation tests revealed altered AT III, Prot C and Prot S levels. Patient was then treated with anticoagulants. MD, 63 years old, slight hypercholesterolemic, presented acute transient mild left hemiparesis, with rapid spontaneous recovery.

This and the other prior studies in this area have taken what could be considered a cross-sectional approach and examined differences between smokers and non-smokers. In terms of the use of this approach for determining the biological effects of tobacco products with modified toxicant yields, an examination of whether these models possess the ability to discriminate between the sera of individuals before and after either they quit smoking or switch to a reduced exposure tobacco product

is required. Regardless of the method of exposure, an area that has selleck products received little attention is that of the duration of exposure to cigarette smoke. In the majority of in vitro models, cells are exposed to cigarette smoke extracts or to sera for short periods, typically around 2–48 h. Smoking-related

cardiovascular disease is a disorder which manifests itself over a prolonged period of time and following many years of exposure to cigarette smoke. When the chronic nature of the disease is taken into consideration, the limitations of such an acute exposure period must be addressed. Technical limitations restrict the length of time in which cells can be cultured in vitro and this impacts our ability to expose Ku-0059436 research buy cells to cigarette smoke for more prolonged periods of time. It is also noteworthy that most experiments involving cigarette smoke exposure apply a single dose of a cigarette smoke extract to the cells. Again, the nature

of the in vivo exposure to cigarette smoke in a smoker, in which the vascular system is exposed to toxicants for brief periods many times a day, may not be adequately reflected in such simple models. When seeking to improve cigarette smoke exposures for in vitro models that better mimic in vivo conditions, insight can perhaps be gained not from models of other cardiovascular disease risk factors. One such risk factor for example is obstructive sleep apnoea, a disorder in which upper airway obstruction causes periodic and repetitive decreases in blood oxygen saturation during sleep ( Parish and Somers, 2004). Similar to cigarette smoking, this repeated hypoxic insult may induce oxidative stress in the cardiovascular system, potentially explaining why obstructive sleep apnoea is strongly associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease ( Lavie, 2003, Parish and Somers, 2004 and Priou et al., 2010). In vitro models of obstructive sleep apnoea have utilised the cyclical nature of the hypoxic insult to mimic that seen in vivo. For example, Ryan et al., (2005) demonstrated that periodic exposure of HeLa cells to hypoxia provided a stronger stimulus for the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), an oxidative stress-responsive transcription factor, than sustained hypoxia.

6, 200 mM NaCl, 100 mM CaCl2, and 1% Triton X-100). After selleck compound centrifugation (12,000 × g, 10 °C, 10 min), protein concentration in supernatant aliquots was determined ( Lowry et al., 1951), and equal amounts of total protein loaded for zymography (60 μg/lane) to determine gelatinase activity ( Heussen and Dowdle, 1980). Zymogram gels consisted of 7.5% polyacrylamide-SDS impregnated with 2 mg/ml type A gelatin from porcine skin (Sigma, St. Louis, MI) and 4% polyacrylamide-SDS for stacking gels. Gels were further washed twice for 30 min in 2.5% Triton X-100 solution, then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h in substrate buffer (10 mM Tris–HCl buffer, pH 7.5, with 5 mM CaCl2, 1 mM ZnCl2). Gels were stained with 30%

methanol/10% acetic acid solution containing 0.5% brilliant blue R-250 (Sigma) and discolored with the same

solution without check details dye. Quantitative image analysis was performed with software Scion Image for Windows (Scion Corporation, National Institutes of Health; Bethesda, MD). Statistical analysis was carried out using GraphPad Prism software (GraphPad Software Inc., San Diego, CA) with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA), Tukey’s multiple comparisons test and unpaired Student’s t-test analyzing differences between groups. The significance level was set to p < 0.05. At 1 DPI the snake venom induced extensive myonecrosis (Fig. 1A, E, K) and sarcolemmal disruptions evidenced by EBD fluorescence in both strains (Fig. 1I, J). Serum CK levels at 3 h after venom injection (Fig. 1L) confirmed that the extension

of acute tissue damage is similar in gastrocnemius muscle from C3H/HeJ mice with a non-functional TLR-4 receptor and C3H/HeN mice with functional receptor. Myonecrosis and intense inflammatory infiltration (3 DPI) corresponded nearly to 30% of the total tissue area in both C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN (Fig. 1B, F, K). TLR4-deficient mice showed at 10 DPI a 3-fold (p < 0.05) increase in the area of injury compared to C3H/HeN mice ( Fig. 1C, NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase G, K). C3H/HeJ lesion was characterized by intense inflammatory infiltrate and connective tissue deposition ( Fig. 1C, G). No significant difference was observed in the CK activity between both strains ( Fig. 1K). At 21 DPI both strains showed ( Fig. 1D, H, K) numerous myofibers with central nucleation, an indication of efficient muscle regeneration. Regional lymph nodes from C3H/HeJ and C3H/HeN showed at 3 DPI similar increase of cellularity in the draining lymph nodes from venom inoculated muscles in comparison to the contralateral lymph node (Fig. 2A). However, at 10 and 21 DPI (Fig. 2B, C) TLR4-deficient mice showed a significant (p < 0.05, p < 0.001) increase of cellularity in the lymph node of the inoculated muscles compared to C3H/HeN wild-type mice. Intramuscular inoculation of the venom causes an increase of muscle mass due to massive edema formation (Barbosa et al., 2008).

These observations complicate the development of anti-aging drugs targeting the mTOR and IIS pathways. Inhibition of the IIS pathway activates the transcription factor FoxO, and many of the click here lifespan extending effects of IIS inhibition are indeed mediated by FoxO [59]. FoxO also acts as a tumor

suppressor [60 and 61]. Interestingly, a recent study in mammalian cells and C. elegans demonstrated that FoxO/DAF-16 activates expression of glutamine synthetase (GS) and increased GS expression in turn inhibits TORC1 activity [ 62]. In agreement with this finding, another recent report demonstrated that glutaminolysis (the de-amination of glutamine to form α-ketoglutarate) activates mTORC1 [ 63••]. Furthermore, in flies and mammals FoxO blocks TORC1 signaling by inducing expression of sestrins which leads to activation of AMPK,

a negative regulator of TORC1 signaling [ 64, 65 and 66]. In worms, DAF-16 negatively regulates buy Alisertib raptor/daf-15 transcription [ 67]. These findings suggest that FoxO may exert some of its positive effects on lifespan and tumor suppression via inhibition of TORC1 signaling. mTOR signaling is found in all tissues, but is probably particularly important in metabolic tissues. Metabolic organs, such as the liver, muscle and adipose tissue, are particularly sensitive to nutrients, insulin/IGF-1, and energy — the three inputs that control mTOR. Liver, muscle and adipose tissue, in turn, control whole body glucose and lipid homeostasis. Below we review recent studies on the regulation of glucose and lipid homeostasis by mTOR in metabolic tissues. Upon fasting, the liver produces glucose via glycogen breakdown (glycogenolysis) or via glucose synthesis (gluconeogenesis), to prevent hypoglycemia. Upon feeding, the liver reduces blood glucose levels via consumption (glycolysis) or via conversion of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis) or triglyceride ifoxetine (lipogenesis). Genetically modified mice with defective mTOR signaling in the liver are glucose intolerant, hyperglycemic, hyperinsulinemic and display decreased glycogen content [44••, 48••, 68•, 69•• and 70••],

indicating that hepatic mTOR plays a major role in glucose homeostasis. Furthermore, the above defects are similar to those observed in patients with type 2 diabetes, suggesting that defective mTOR signaling in the liver accounts, at least partly, for the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. Lipogenesis is activated via the transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) [71, 72 and 73]. As first demonstrated in retinal pigment epithelial cells and mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs), mTORC1 mediates maturation of SREBP-1 in an S6K1-dependent manner to stimulate de novo lipid synthesis [ 74 and 75]. However, as shown in primary hepatocytes, mTORC1 stimulates SREBP-1 expression in an S6K-independent manner [ 76].

The total weight of clastic sediment particles sequestered this website within the pond since 1974 was calculated from sediment volume (obtained from bathymetry maps of the pond floor in 2012 and survey maps of the regarded pond floor in 1974). This weight was additionally corrected for organic-matter content and compaction provided by cores collected in an even spatial distribution across the pond (Fig. 6). Bathymetry was measured

relative to bankfull pond level (as determined by the spillway) using a measuring stick from a kayak in June of 2012 (Fig. 6). Depth measurements were utilized to construct a GIS-based raster surface of the pond floor using a nearest-neighbor interpolation method; a second surface model of the post-excavation pond floor in 1974 was based on survey maps of the pond provided by the Mill Creek Park Service (Fig. 7). Depths to the 1974 hard ground below the soft pond sediments, measured at coring locations, served NU7441 as control on the vertical datum and provided a means of integrating the two

data sets. The modern shoreline position, digitized from aerial photography, provided points of zero depth value for use in subsequent surface and volume modeling. A subtraction map of these two surfaces (i.e. 2012–1974) provided a net-thickness (i.e. volume) map for the time interval of interest to be used for an assessment of the clastic sediment contribution from surrounding hillslopes (Fig. 7). A total of 8 sediment cores were collected in an even distribution

across the pond using a push-coring device (Fig. 6 and Table 2). A 3″ aluminum core barrel was pushed through the soft sediment to the underlying hard ground (i.e. till or sedimentary rock). The difference in distance from the top of the corer to the sediment–water interface along the outside and inside of the core tube, respectively, provided a measure of core compaction, which provided a correction factor (Cc) for the volume to dry weight calculation ( Fig. 7). Compaction PAK6 for all cores averaged ∼30%, but ranged from 10% to 50% ( Table 2). Cores were halved in the lab length-wise, photographed, described, and sub-sampled at 2.5 cm-intervals for loss on ignition and grain-size analysis of the clastic component. LOI was performed using the standard procedure outlined by Schumacher (2002). Post-LOI grain-size analysis was performed using the standard dry-sieve method. A 63 μm-sieve was used to isolate the silt/clay component from the sand constituency. The USLE estimates soil loss in t/acre/yr (Wischmeier and Smith, 1978); the analysis therefore required a conversion from sediment volume, determined by the subtraction of the survey-derived surface model of the 1974 pond floor from the 2012 bathymetry-derived surface model of the modern pond floor, to dry inorganic sediment weight. Pristine core halves were used to generate a conversion factor for deriving dry sediment weight from volume (Cvw).