RIG-I, LGP2, and their adaptor IPS-1 are conserved in the lamprey genome, while MDA5 is not found. Interestingly, although NF-κB and its activating genes, such as TBK1 and IKKε, are highly conserved among vertebrates, IRF3, IRF7, type I IFN and inflammatory cytokine genes, such as IL-12p40, IL-6 Cetuximab price and TNFα, have not been found in the lamprey genome. These observations imply that the TLR and RLR pathways are incomplete in jawless vertebrates. Because IL-12 and type I IFN play important roles in direct or indirect activation and differentiation of T cell subsets in jawed vertebrates, their absence in jawless vertebrates implies that the molecular

basis of the innate immune system in jawless vertebrates is distinct from that of jawed vertebrates (5b) [57], [58]. In mammals, the TLR and RLR pathways play a critical role in activation of T and B adaptive immune cells [53]. For click here example, dsRNA such as poly I:C acts as an adjuvant, enhancing adaptive immune responses through the TLR3/TICAM-1 and MDA5/IPS-1 pathways. In TICAM-1 and IPS-1 deficient mice, both antigen-specific antibody production and CD8+ T cell expansion are decreased after poly I:C stimulation [59]. Previous studies have also shown that antigen-specific antibody production in jawless vertebrates is effectively induced against microbes containing PAMPs, which act as adjuvants, in comparison with purified protein antigens

[14]. Hence, as in jawed vertebrates, initiation of adaptive immune responses in jawless vertebrates appears to require prior activation of the innate immune system. Recently, myeloid cells that resemble DCs in mammals have been identified in teleost fish [60], [61]. Activation of these DC-like cells by stimulation with TLR ligands induces expression of IL-12p40 and maturation marker CD83 similarly to mammalian DCs. Moreover, DC-like cells are not only highly phagocytic of foreign antigens such as bacteria but also enhance proliferation of antigen-specific

T cells. Previous studies in jawless vertebrates have shown that polymorphonuclear myeloid cells phagocytose mammalian erythrocytes [62]. Additionally, the TLR3 and TLR5 genes, which are expressed in mammalian DCs and teleost Methocarbamol DC-like cells, are expressed in VLRA−/VLRB− cells [27]. These observations indicate that VLRA−/VLRB− myeloid cells, which phagocytose foreign antigens, may function as accessory cells that activate the VLR-based adaptive immune system. Although the molecular details of the innate and adaptive immune systems differ between jawless and jawed vertebrates, both immune systems are similar in jawless vertebrates and jawed vertebrates. The functions of VLRA+ and VLRC+ LLCs and the mechanisms of self-tolerance in thymoids are still unknown. Additionally, the molecular and cellular basis for crosstalk between the innate and adaptive immune systems in jawless vertebrates is also unclear.