In the second study, GSTP1 overexpression was observed in the synaptosomal fraction of PD cases and was suggested to protect cells against rotenone-induced neurotoxicity via oxidative and ER stress attenuation in a PD cell model [152]. Three other studies by Choi et al. proved useful for elucidating some of the PTMs associated

with PD. Using 2-DE, they demonstrated oxidation in multiple proteins previously linked to PD, including the chaperone DJ-1, superoxide dismutase Cu/Zn, as well as the de-ubiquitinating ERK inhibitor in vitro protein UCH-L1 in the frontal cortex of PD patients compared to controls [238], [239] and [240]. Recently, van Dijk et al. performed a proteomic analysis of the locus ceruleus, one of the earliest affected brain regions in PD [241]. By comparing PD patients (n = 6) versus controls (n = 6) with a label free approach, they identified 2′ 495 proteins of which 87 were differentially expressed between groups. In particular, a pathogenic role for aminoacyl-tRNA-biosynthesis was highlighted. Overall, these proteomics studies were successful in confirming existing theories about PD pathogenesis (Fig. 3). The majority of the differential proteins were indeed implicated in buy Pexidartinib mitochondrial dysfunction, energy metabolism

impairment, oxidative stress, protein aggregation, cytoskeleton impairment, or inflammation. Whereas some of the observed protein alterations were previously associated to PD pathogenesis (i.e., ferritin), others were novel candidates such as CNDP2, mortalin, regucalcin, or seipin. Curiously, α-SYN overexpression did generally not show up significantly in these studies [196], [232] and [241]. The most probable explanation comes from the fact that in a tissue-based approach, the overexpression of synaptic α-SYN in surviving DA neuronal PD cells may be compensated by the higher number of healthy neuronal cells in control patients. These studies also suggested some less conventional

pathways such as defects in protein translation, ER stress, blood brain barrier or extracellular matrix abnormalities (Fig. 3). Of note, it was tuclazepam sometimes unclear whether the observed protein changes were a cause or a consequence of the neurodegenerative process. In tissue-based approach, the decrease in neuronal protein levels may simply reflect PD associated neuronal loss. Further biological evaluation of the pathogenic mechanisms underlying these protein alterations may provide new therapeutic targets for PD. During the past 10 years, only a small number of human tissue based proteomics studies have been published due to limitations in their availability, number, quality and complexity. In the context of a worldwide decline in autopsy rate, some of these issues can be partially overcome through a facilitated access to existing brain banks which ensure the collection of well characterized and preserved brain tissues.