In a recent study, in silico chromosome painting was applied to H. pylori to reveal finer population structure that was not recognized previously using conventional multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) analysis of several housekeeping genes, and the latter failed to account for recombination across the genome [14]. Using this method, novel subpopulations were found in European, Amerindian, and East Asian groups. In addition, some singleton strains were shown to be hybrids of subgroups and demonstrated signs of population admixture in Africa, Europe, and parts of Asia. These

results enhance our current understanding of the intraspecific bacterial evolution. Bacteriophages make up part of the bacterial genomes. They can contribute to bacterial evolution and may affect host attributes, such as physiological SAR245409 behavior, pathogenesis, or adaptation

via their possible roles in horizontal gene acquisition and bacteria–phage Ensartinib molecular weight antagonistic coevolution [15]. The temperate bacteriophage 1961P was isolated from the lysate of a H. pylori clinical isolate cultured in Taiwan, characterized and sequenced [16]. The bacteriophage was reported to be typical of the Podoviridae family and may be transduced and integrated into the host bacterial chromosome via a mechanism similar to that of lambda phage. The complete genome sequences of two H. pylori bacteriophages isolated from culture supernatants of East Asian-type strains from Japanese patients were also sequenced [17]. Bacteriophages/prophages are not uncommon as phage-associated genes were identified in nine of ten H. pylori strains from

Kuala Lumpur [Vadivelu J, Loke MF, et al. (unpublished)]. The functional and evolutionary roles of these H. pylori bacteriophages/prophages remain Thiamet G largely unknown. It appears that H. pylori research community has ushered in to its good times while the technology revolution flooding the bacterial genomic landscape [18, 19]. Significant progress has been made in augmenting the understanding of the biology of H.  pylori through replicative genomics. New genome data from high burden countries would add to the story in a more meaningful manner. The much-needed genome sequences of unexplored strains from remote/tribal and mainstream populations will facilitate understanding of the true virulence potentials of H. pylori, its transmission, global epidemiology, and adaptive coevolution with its host. Chronological and replicate genomics of serial isolates obtained from single patients are likely to enrich vistas of the host–microbe interactions occurring during colonization by H. pylori. The core genome of H.